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(一) PCR/ASO(allele specific oligonucleotide,ASO,等位基因特异性寡核苷酸)
PCR/ASO探针诊断点突变,系在扩增DNA片段后,直接与相应的寡核苷酸探针杂交,来明确诊断是否有突变以及突变是纯合子还是杂合子。
(二) PCR-SSCP(single strand conformation polymorphism, SSCP)
PCR-SSCP系1989年由Orita首先报道的,它是一种基于单链DNA构象差别来检测点突变的方法。该方法操作简单、灵敏且特异性高,是目前检测点突变最简捷的方法。
(三) PCR-RFLP (restriction fragment length polymorphism,RFLP,限制性片段长度多态性分析)
RFLP分析与PCR反应相结合,先用PCR来扩增待检的片段,再进行RFLP来检测那些发生在酶切位点的突变简化了RFLP的分析过程,并使该项技术得到了广泛的应用。
(四) DNA序列测定法(direct sequencing, DS)
PCR产物经克隆后测序或直接对PCR产物进行测序是所有进行基因突变检测的方法中最灵敏、最直接、最全面的,不仅可以确定突变的部位,还可以确定突变的性质。尤以循环测序法最具有代表性,该方法以TaqDNA聚合酶代替测序酶。测序反应通过多次的变性、退火、延伸来完成,具有快速、简便、灵敏等优点。但是DNA序列测定法所需的仪器和高昂的费用限制了它在临床诊断中的应用。
(五) 异源双链分析(heteroduplex analysis, HA)
该方法类似于SSCP。在一个PCR反应中,如果同时存在野生型和突变型的DNA模板,那么在PCR循环中突变型和野生型DNA形成的杂合双链DNA分子即异源双链DNA片段,它与同源双链在聚丙烯酰胺电泳中呈现不同的电泳速率,经聚丙烯酰胺电泳就可以将仅有一个碱基改变的异源双链片段与同源双链片段分开,从而达到诊断碱基突变的目的。该方法依赖于双链DNA分子序列依赖性的构象变化。对于小于300bp的小DNA片段其敏感性较好,且已在许多遗传性疾病中得到应用。
(六)变性梯度凝胶电泳(denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis,DGGE)
DGGE是一项根据DNA解链特性分离鉴定DNA片段的技术。在温度和变性剂浓度增加时,DNA分子内一些称为变性区域的独立片段将发生变性。PCR扩增片段通过一线性增加的变性凝胶电泳体系时,一旦进入相当于某些区域解链温度(Tm)的变性剂浓度区将会解链形成分叉的DNA分子,并因此使迁移率显著下降。变性区域的解链温度(Tm)由其核苷组成决定,序列中发生一个碱基的改变,其解链温度Tm改变1.5℃,在变性梯度凝胶上表现出不同的迁移率。同SSCP比较,DGGE需要制备新鲜的梯度胶,检出率也较低,且只能确定突变的存在,不能进行突变位置和性质的定量分析。但DGGE无需知道待测片段的DNA序列,无需制备测试引物。
(七) 化学错配裂解法(chemical mismatch cleavage, CMC)
CMC是将同位素标记过的野生型DNA分子和突变型DNA(或RNA)片段混合后经过变性与复性, 形成DNA-DNA或DNA-RNA的异源杂交双链,在突变部位会产生凸起。对凸起处错配碱基进行化学修饰并使之从双链分子上断开,通过变性聚丙烯酰胺凝胶电泳及放射自显影即可确定是否有突变发生。CMC法最大优点是能对放大片段进行“扫描”式分析,存在于序列中任何部位的突变都能被检出,多用于多基因突变的遗传病。
此外还有等位特异性PCR(allele specific PCR,AS-PCR)、PCR核糖体分型(ribotyping)技术、可变数目***重复(variable number tandem repeats,VNTR)序列和短***重复(short tandem repeats,STR)序列分析等方法可用于基因突变的分析。这些方法各有所长,具有不同的优缺点,在不同的领域内有着不同的应用。无论是哪种检测技术都体现了PCR技术本身所具有的优越性,在实际应用时,可根据实验目的和具体需要,选择最恰当的方法或将不同的方法联合应用,PCR的应用将使基因突变检测技术有更广阔的应用前景。
(关宇光 王廷华)作者: 荷塘青蛙! 时间: 2011-8-24 17:17
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第七章 PCR技术分析DNA序列多态性
每个个体在遗传上是不同的,而不同的本质不是在基因产物上,而是在DNA 水平上的差异。这些差异是由于不编码蛋白的区域和没有重要调节功能的区域发生了中立突变,这些中立突变构成的DNA变异称为DNA多态性。DNA碱基序列,对于个体来说保持终生不变,并按孟德尔规律世代相传。对于一个群体而言,DNA多态性千差万别,换句话说,世界上没有两个个体的DNA是完全相同的。
过去对于人类遗传标记多态性的研究,主要是在基因产物如抗原、蛋白质和酶水平进行。近年来逐渐认识到基因产物多态性起源于结构基因的多态性。在疾病调查研究中发现,基因在生物进化过程中,由于突变、缺失、插入或置换,使DNA分子在不同个体之间存在差异。单一基因座的遗传标记有多个等位基因存在,就叫多态性(polymorphism)。当这样的基因座表现出有很多的变异体(多达几百个)时,就称之为高度差异性(hypervariable)。
第一节 DNA的二种多态性和遗传标记分类
一、 片段长度多态性(fragment length polymorphism,FLP)
片段长度多态性表现在二个固定端点间DNA片段的长度上的差异性。DNA的长度多态性表现为限制性长度多态性(restriction fragment length polymorphism,RFLP)和扩增片段长度多态性(Amplified fragment length polymorphism Amp-FLP)。RFLP是用限制性内切酶切割成不同长度的DNA片段,即不同大小的等位基因,其产生的原因主要是DNA顺序上某个碱基发生突变,如单个置换,或少数碱基缺失、重复、插入,使突变部位的DNA序列产生或丢失某种限制性酶切位点,当用该限制性内切酶消化此DNA时,DNA限制性片段长度发生变化,产生与正常不同的限制性片段。Amp-FLP是定位于可变数目***重复序列(Variable Number of Tandem Repeats, VNTR)、短***重复序列(Short Tandem Repeats,STR)位点的等位基因,它们的重复序列核苷酸排列顺序相同,重复序列在每个个体中出现的次数不同,在个体间产生了DNA片段的长度差异,表现出高度的多态性。当用限制性内切酶切割这些位点区域时,只要酶切位点不在重复区内,就可得到长度不同的片段。VNTR、STR的长度多态性可以通过PCR扩增后用电泳方法检出。作者: 荷塘青蛙! 时间: 2011-8-24 17:18
二、 序列多态性(Sequence polymorphism)
表现为碱基排列顺序上的差异,其本质是定位于VNTR、STR位点或者其它区域DNA位点的等位基因,它们重复序列的核苷酸排列顺序不相同;或者单一序列核苷酸排列不相同,但不同个体间同一位点的等位基因长度相同。例如多标记位点:人类白细胞抗原DQA1(HLA-DQA1),低密度脂蛋白受体位点(LDLR),血型糖蛋白(GYPA),血红蛋白Gr球蛋白位点(HBGG),第7号染色体S8位点(D7S8)和维生素D结合蛋白位点(Gc)。
第二节 PCR技术分析DNA序列多态性
PCR技术分析DNA序列多态性的技术主要有:1、PCR-RFLP技术;2、PCR-SSO技术(PCR-sequence specific oligonucleotide,正向或反向特异性寡核苷酸探针杂交);3、PCR测序; 4 、PCR-SSCP(PCR-single sequence conformation polymorphism,单链构象多态性技术); 5、PCR-OLA技术(PCR- oligonucleotide ligation assay,寡核苷酸连接检测技术);6、PCR- RCA技术(isothermal rolling circle amplification,等温滚环扩增技术);7、线粒体DNA(mitochondrial DNA,mtDNA)多态性及分析等。
一、 PCR-RFLP(restriction fragment length polymorphism )技术
在人类基因组中存在着许多限制性内切酶切点,这些切点在人群中具有明显的遗传多态性。因此可用PCR方法扩增基因内或其旁侧序列中有酶切位点的已知DNA序列,然后用相应的内切酶进行切割,通过用琼脂糖或聚丙烯酰胺凝胶电泳技术进行酶切产物分析,即PCR-RFLP。PCR-RFLP的基本步骤:1、PCR扩增包括有酶切位点的靶序列;2、以特异的限制性内切酶消化扩增产物;3、电泳分离酶切消化产物。用PCR-RFLP即可分析单个的酶切位点多态性,亦可分析多个酶切位点多态性。与传统的RFLP分析技术相比,此技术使少量的目的DNA的RFLP分析成为可能,且操作简便快速,分型简单,被广泛应用于ABO、HLA、GPT、PGM1、mtDNA等序列多态性的分析。
PCR-RFLP技术具体详见相关章节。
二、 PCR-SSO(sequence specific oligonucleotide-PCR,SSO-PCR)技术
序列特异性寡核苷酸—聚合酶链式反应(PCR-SSO),或等位基因特异性寡核苷酸—聚合酶链式反应(allelic specific oligonucleotide –PCR,PCR - ASO)技术的基本原理是采用特异性引物进行PCR扩增,利用合成与一种或多种等位基因特异碱基序列的互补寡核苷酸探针,与固定在尼龙膜上的PCR扩增产物进行杂交,从而简单、快速地检测序列多态性。PCR-SSO技术的基本步骤: 1、提取目的基因DNA;2、以位点间或组间特异性引物进行体外扩增;3、将扩增产物转移到硝酸纤维素膜或尼龙膜上;4、以放射性同位素32P或非放射性(酶、地高辛等)标记的人工合成序列特异寡核苷酸(SSO)探针进行杂交。此法可分辨几乎所有等位基因的特异性,也能分开差异仅仅是 1~2bp的亚型。具有技术简单,可以同时分析多个样品等优点。PCR-SSO技术是目前应用最多的一种简单、快速而又精确的HLA-II类抗原分型方法,能鉴定所有已知序列的HLA-DR、DQ、DP等位基因。
PCR-SSO技术具体详见相关章节。作者: 荷塘青蛙! 时间: 2011-8-24 17:18
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第八章 用PCR技术分析VNTR和和STR
第一节 概述
DNA片段长度多态性(DNA fragment length polymorphism , DNA-FLP)是指单一基因位点上,不同个体间不同基因的核苷酸排列数量的差异,表现为等位基因片段长度大小不同,其常见的形式有VNTR和STR。
基因组DNA中存在一类***重复序列,其***重复单位(核心序列)数目在人群中存在较大差异,具有高度多态性。1980年Wyman和White利用DNA重组技术研究人的DNA,他们用EcoRⅠ切割之后,把含有16kb单拷贝的人类DNA片段插入噬菌体λ-CH4A-rHs18克隆作为探针进行杂交,发现这个酶切位点高度变异,至少有8个不同的DNA片段,由此认为这种多态现象是DNA再次排列的结果,而不是碱基对的替代和修饰。1985年英国Leicester大学的Jeffreys A与其同事在人的肌球蛋白基因中发现了一些短的简单重复单位,他称之为“小卫星中心(minisatellite core )”,它含有一组重复单位,重复子的数目和顺序存在个体间的差异。随后的许多研究逐渐表明,在人类基因组中分布有大量此类长度的多态性标记,它们可能以 “头-尾”正向或“头-头”、“尾-尾”反向***成簇,重复排列,并分布于基因组的各个部位,构成数量可变的***重复(Variable Number of Tandem Repeats, VNTR)。由于该区AT含量高,如果将基因组DNA切成较小片段后放在氯化铯(CsCl)溶液中进行密度梯度离心时,可在大部分DNA形成的一个主区带以外形成小的区带,因小的区带在主区带旁似卫星而称为卫星DNA。其中,重复序列为6~70bp的称为小卫星DNA(minisatellite DNA)。1989年另一类称作微卫星标记系统(microsatellite DNA)的重复序列被发现,它们的重复序列长度为2~6个核苷酸,又被称作“短***重复序列(Short Tandem Repeats, STR)”。
小卫星和微卫星DNA的多态性产生机制不同。小卫星的多态性是有丝分裂、减数分裂期姐妹染色单体不等交换或染色体内部不等交换的结果。微卫星的多态性主要是DNA复制过程中滑动,或者DNA复制和修复时滑动链与互补链碱基错配,导致一个或几个重复单位的缺失或插入的结果。小卫星和微卫星DNA各有其特点,表(8-1)为两者比较。
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2.引物的设计
PDMS1(Primer 1) TAG GTA ACA CAA AGA ACT CC (5'®3')
PDMS3(Primer 3) ATT TTG GAG AGT GAA GTG CA (5'®3')
3. PCR反应条件
程序(Takara 系统)
水 34.7 μl
缓冲液 5 μl
混合 dNTP 5 μl
MgCl2 5 μl
引物 1 1 μl
引物 3 1 μl
Taq酶 0.3 μl
模板DNA 2 μl
95 °C 10 min
95 °C 1 min
55 °C 1 min 40 循环
72 °C 1 min
72 °C 10 min
(三) 电泳检测PCR产物
PCR反应产物在1.5%的琼脂糖凝胶上80V、电泳50min,电泳后的PCR扩增产物使用溴化乙锭染色在紫外灯下观测。
第三节 结果
在所有的可以鉴别出的178只动物中,40%的动物属于野生型(48只)。杂合基因型以及纯合型的分别占40%和32.5%。表(11-1)列出了检测后获得的每一动物的基因型。
表(11-1)
每一动物的内容和基因型(DNA μg/μl)
编号 出生日期 性别 基因型 OD260/OD280 DNA
1 sem 43 M */* 1.771 930
2 sem 43 F */* 1.448 322
3 sem 43 M wt/* 1.225 189
4 sem 43 F */* 1.266 137
5 sem 43 M wt/* 1.44 312
6 sem 43 F wt/* 1.332 170
7 sem 43 M */* 1.741 235
8 sem 43 F wt/wt 1.862 270
9 sem 43 F wt/wt 1.931 280
10 sem 43 F */* 1.889 255
11 sem 45 M */* 1.885 245
12 sem 45 F wt/* 1.917 460
13 sem 45 M wt/* 1.869 570
14 sem 45 F wt/wt 1.957 450
15 sem 45 M wt/* 1.885 510
16 sem 45 F wt/wt 1.863 475
17 sem 45 M wt/wt 1.792 475
18 sem 45 F */* 1.901 380
19 sem 45 M */* 1.815 490
20 sem 45 F wt/* 1.792 430
21 sem 45 M wt/wt 1.925 510
22 sem 45 F */* 1.893 530
23 sem 45 M wt/* 1.907 1020
24 sem 45 F wt/* 1.878 845
25 sem 45 M wt/wt 1.876 910
26 sem 45 F wt/* 1.911 965
27 sem 45 M */* 1.897 920
28 sem 45 F wt/* 1.898 930
29 sem 45 M wt/wt 1.797 575
30 sem 45 F */* 1.783 410
31 sem 45 M wt/wt 1.873 515
32 sem 45 F wt/* 1.786 375
33 sem 45 M */* 1.819 655
34 sem 45 F wt/* 1.809 425
35 sem 45 M wt/wt 1.679 470
36 sem 45 F */* 1.75 525
37 sem 45 M */* 1.789 635
38 sem 45 F wt/wt 1.543 625
39 sem 45 M */* 1.754 570
40 sem 45 F wt/wt 1.774 550
41 sem 45 M wt/wt 1.714 420
42 sem 45 F wt/* 1.643 460
43 sem 45 M */* 1.506 625
44 sem 45 F wt/* 1.577 615
45 sem 45 M wt/wt 1.718 670
46 sem 45 F wt/wt 1.671 610
47 sem 45 M wt/* 1.742 810
48 sem 45 F */* 1.601 760
49 sem 45 M wt/wt 1.02 1020
50 sem 45 F */* 1.725 690
51 sem 45 M wt/* 1.636 965
52 sem 45 F wt/* 1.663 735
53 sem 45 M wt/* 1.72 860
54 sem 45 F wt/* 1.689 760
55 sem 45 M wt/* 1.714 660
56 sem 45 F wt/* 1.725 880作者: 荷塘青蛙! 时间: 2011-8-30 15:10
57 sem 45 M */* 1.719 1100
58 sem 45 F wt/* 1.772 930
59 sem 49 M */* 1.875 300
60 sem 49 F wt/* 1.669 1060
61 sem 49 M wt/* 1.875 450
62 sem 49 F wt/* 1.846 600
63 sem 49 M */* 1.704 460
64 sem 49 F wt/* 1.634 1235
65 sem 49 M wt/wt 1.654 2100
66 sem 49 F wt/* 1.731 580
67 sem 49 M wt/wt 1.55 4410
68 sem 49 F */* 1.689 1005
69 sem 49 M wt/* 1.714 300
70 sem 49 F */* 1.806 280
71 sem 49 M wt/wt 1.812 435
72 sem 49 F wt/wt 1.845 655
73 sem 49 M wt/* 1.839 570
74 sem 49 F wt/* 1.824 465
75 sem 49 M */* 1.833 385
76 sem 49 F wt/* 1.667 1500
77 sem 49 M wt/* 1.841 810
78 sem 49 F wt/wt 1.752 2795
79 sem 50 M wt/* 1.693 1185
80 sem 50 F */* 1.71 1180
81 sem 50 M */* 1.692 1540
82 sem 50 F wt/* 1.74 1305
83 sem 50 M wt/* 1.686 1450
84 sem 50 F */* 1.655 1175
85 sem 50 M wt/wt 1.731 1350
86 sem 50 F */* 1.717 1305
87 sem 50 M */* 1.642 1100
88 sem 50 F */* 1.669 2070
89 sem 51 M wt/wt 1.311 990
90 sem 51 F wt/wt 1.392 1155
91 sem 51 M */* 1.406 745
92 sem 51 F */* 1.345 780
93 sem 51 M wt/wt 1.745 410
94 sem 51 F wt/wt 1.682 555
95 sem 51 M wt/* 1.702 485
96 sem 51 F wt/* 1.843 645
97 sem 51 M */* 1.657 895
98 sem 51 F wt/* 1.676 855
99 sem 51 M */* 1.797 530
100 sem 51 F wt/wt 1.565 1205
101 sem 51 M wt/wt 1.672 560
102 sem 51 F wt/wt 1.737 825
103 sem 51 M */* 1.602 1025
104 sem 51 F wt/wt 1.664 1090
105 sem 51 M */* 1.527 2115
106 sem 51 F */* 1.667 375
107 sem 51 M wt/wt 1.771 850
108 sem 51 F wt/* 1.742 1045
109 sem 51 M wt/wt 1.697 1205
110 sem 51 F wt/wt 1.733 1300
111 sem 51 M wt/* 1.761 1030
112 sem 51 F wt/* 1.778 1565
113 sem 51 M wt/* 1.863 615
114 sem 51 F */* 1.569 455
115 sem 51 M wt/wt 1.622 1200
116 sem 51 F */* 1.323 655
117 sem 51 M wt/* 1.662 1230
118 sem 51 F */* 1.67 785
119 sem 51 M wt/wt 1.672 1580
120 sem 51 F */* 1.52 1885
121 sem 51 M wt/* 1.831 815
122 sem 51 F na 1.36 1775
123 sem 51 M */* 1.505 1460
131 sem 2 M wt/* 1.773 195
132 sem 2 F wt/* 1.8 180
133 sem 2 M wt/* 1.674 140
134 sem 2 F wt/* 1.455 320
135 sem 2 M wt/* 1.774 275
136 sem 2 F wt/wt 1.525 305
137 sem 2 M */* 1.609 370
138 sem 2 F wt/wt 1.451 355作者: 荷塘青蛙! 时间: 2011-8-30 15:10
139 sem 2 M */* 1.564 430
140 sem 2 F wt/* 1.667 300
141 sem 2 M wt/* 1.672 535
142 sem 2 F */* 1.71 265
143 sem 2 M */* 1.633 245
144 sem 2 F wt/* 1.789 340
145 sem 2 M wt/wt 1.509 400
146 sem 2 F wt/* 1.457 255
147 sem 2 M wt/wt 1.585 420
148 sem 2 F wt/* 1.651 355
149 sem 2 M wt/* 1.491 425
150 sem 2 F wt/* 1.719 275
151 sem 2 M wt/wt 1.875 225
152 sem 2 F */* 1.662 300
153 sem 2 M */* 1.625 455
154 sem 2 F wt/* 1.623 430
155 sem 2 M */* 1.606 795
156 sem 2 F wt/* 1.741 505
157 sem 2 M wt/* 1.601 280
158 sem 2 F wt/wt 1.745 500
159 sem 2 M wt/wt 1.623 430
160 sem 2 F */* 1.673 435
161 sem 2 M */* 1.667 475
162 sem 2 F wt/wt 1.636 540
163 sem 2 M wt/* 1.688 650
164 sem 2 F wt/* 1.551 380
165 sem 2 M wt/* 1.885 245
166 sem 2 F wt/* 1.758 290
167 sem 2 M wt/wt 1.619 680
168 sem 2 F wt/* 1.667 125
169 sem 2 M wt/* 1.733 390
170 sem 2 F wt/* 1.681 605
171 sem 2 M wt/* 1.657 1110
172 sem 2 F */* 1.835 1110
173 sem 2 M wt/* 1.694 1440
174 sem 2 F wt/wt 1.842 875
175 sem 2 M wt/wt 1.735 1405
176 sem 2 F wt/wt 1.553 1165
177 sem 2 M */* 1.651 875
178 sem 2 F wt/* 1.729 415
179 sem 2 M wt/wt 1.489 655
180 sem 2 F */* 1.784 330
181 sem 2 M */* 1.819 855
182 sem 2 F */* 1.611 725
183 sem 2 M wt/wt 1.802 1000
184 sem 2 F */* 1.654 860
185 sem 2 M wt/* 1.543 1020
基因型的比例
表(11-2)列出了野生型、杂合型、纯合型鼠的比例。
表(11-2)
总数 178 例 (89M ; 89 F)
wt/wt野生型 wt/*杂合型 */*纯合型 ?未检出
28 M 32 M 29 M
20 F 39 F 29 F 1
48 71 58 1
27% 40% 32.5% 0.50%作者: 荷塘青蛙! 时间: 2011-8-30 15:11
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